DES Research: Emphasis of Prenatal Hormones & Endocrine Disrupting Effects on Reproductive Health, Sexual Development and Gender Identity 1973 to 2025

December 2025 Update

Overview

In my 30+ years of researching and documenting the health issues and life experiences of people who were exposed to the endocrine-disrupting drug diethylstilbestrol, I developed a 5-year study of approximately 500 initial members of my DES Sons research network between 1999 and 2004 and additional research focusing on this subject between 2005 and 2025.

My initial DES study is published in a report “Prenatal Exposure to Diethylstilbestrol (DES) in Males and Gender-Related Disorders: Results from a 5-Year Study“, which I presented internationally in 2005. Details of this study are described in my 2025 updated report on DES and Human Health Effects: Emphasis on Gender and Sexuality. Several issues of sexuality, sexual health, gender identity and transgender, reproductive and sexual disorders became prominent in my findings. I have held long-standing interest in these topics, and I have been moved to review a very broad scope of scientific literature that gives context to my research investigation and preliminary findings.


What follows is an evolving directory of published research with regard to the endocrine and hormonal foundations of human sexuality, gender identity and reproductive system development. This research focus includes extensive reference to the study of human health effects of exposure to endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDC), of which DES is a primary member. This is very much an active area of my continuing research investigation.

I have devoted many years to deeply researching the subjects of gender identity, gender dysphoria, transgender and non-binary identity, and human sexuality. If you share my interests, I invite you to visit my comprehensive directory of gender identity research.

(for a full directory of published DES and endocrine disruptors research, visit Diethylstilbestrol and Endocrine Disruptors (EDCs): Multigenerational Research Trends, 1939-2025)

Related Journal and Textbook References 1973-2025

2016-2025

• ** {NEW} Fetal Exposition to Synthetic Sex Hormones: Their Nature and Impact on Human Health (2025), by Marie-Odile Soyer-Gobillard & Charles Sultan, Cambridge Scholars Publishing
  
  
• ** {NEW} Gender Identity Disorders: A Legacy of Fetal Exposition to Diethylstilbestrol, an Endocrine Disruptor Chemical (2025), by Marie-Odile Soyer-Gobillard, Laura Gaspari, & Charles Sultan, published in The European Society of Medicine Medical Research Archives
  
  
• {NEW} Effect of Endocrine Disruptors on Testicular Function (2025), by Latchoumycandane Calivarathan &  Premendu Prakash Mathur, published in Molecular Male Reproductive Medicine: Biology and Clinical Perspectives
  
  
• ** {NEW} Early Female Transgender Identity after Prenatal Exposure to Diethylstilbestrol: Report from a French National Diethylstilbestrol (DES) Cohort (2024), by Laura Gaspari, Scott Kerlin, et al., published in the Journal of Xenobiotics (full-text)
  
  
• * {NEW} Estrogenic endocrine disruptor exposure directly impacts erectile function (2024), by Samuel M. Cripps, et al., published in the journal Communications Biology
  
  
• * {NEW} The Sexual Brain (LeVay): An Argument That Nature Trumps Nurture in the Development of Human Sexuality, by Colin Simsarian, et al., (2024), published in Encyclopedia of Sexual Psychology and Behavior
  
  
• Endocrine Disruptors and Male Sexual Health (2024), by Vadim Osadchiy & Sriram V. Eleswarapu, published in The Journal of Sexual Medicine
  
  
• Endocrine Disruptors: Unravelling the Link Between Chemical Exposure and Women’s Reproductive Health (2024), by Saqib Hassan, et al., published in the journal Environmental Research
  
  
• Exposure to endocrine disrupting chemicals and male reproductive health (2024), by Hueiwang Anna Jeng, published in the journal Frontiers in Public Health
  
  
• Recognizing, Evaluating, and Prioritizing the Fundamental Factors Influencing the Growing Prevalence of Transgender and Non-Binary Gender Identity in the Pediatric Population (2024), by Nicholas A. Kerna, published in the European Journal of Medical and Health Research
  
  
• Enhanced Identification of Endocrine Disruptors through Integration of Science-based Regulatory Practices and Innovative Methodologies: The MERLON Project (2024), by Terje Svingen, et al., published in Open Research Europe
  
  
• Environmental Endocrinology and Endocrine Disruptors: Endocrine and Endocrine-targeted Actions and Related Human Diseases (2023), by R Pivonello & E Diamanti-Kandarakis, published textbook.
  
  
• Environmental Impact on Sexual Response (2023), by Carlocchetti, et al., published in the text Environmental Endocrinology and Endocrine Disruptors: Endocrine and Endocrine-targeted Actions and Related Human Diseases (ed: Rosario Pivonello,  Evanthia Diamanti-Kandarakis)
  
  
• Environmental Impact on the Hypothalamus-Pituitary-Testis Axis (2023), by Andrea di Nisio, et al., published in the text Environmental Endocrinology and Endocrine Disruptors: Endocrine and Endocrine-targeted Actions and Related Human Diseases (ed: Rosario Pivonello,  Evanthia Diamanti-Kandarakis)
  
  
• Endocrine disrupting chemicals and their effects on the reproductive health in men (2023), by Aswin Thacharodi, et al, published in the journal Environmental Research
  
  
• Environmental Contaminants, Endocrine Disruption, and Transgender: Can “born that way” in Some cases be Toxicologically Real? (2023), by Steven David Holladay, published in the journal Human & Experimental Toxicology (full-text)
  
  
• Early prenatal sex steroids and sex-typed play behavior at 4 years of age (2023), by Swathi Sethuram, et al., published in Psychoneuroendocrinology
  

• Estrogens, Male Reproduction and Beyond (2023), by Vincenzo Rochira, MD, PhD & Cesare Carani, MD, published in Endotext.org (full-text)
  
  
• Gender Identity, Sexual Orientation, and the Prenatal Androgen Theory: Reevaluating Definitions, Cognitive Tests, and Somatic Markers (2023), by Rachel N. Levin, et al., published in the journal Psychology of Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity (abstract)
  
  
• Influence of Endocrine Disruptors on Male Reproductive Tract (2023), by Eveline Fontenele, et al., published in the textbook Testosterone: From Basic to Clinical Aspects (ed: Alexandre Hohl)
  
  
• The Role of the Environment in Testicular Dysgenesis Syndrome (2023), by Renata S. Auriemma, et al., published in the text Environmental Endocrinology and Endocrine Disruptors: Endocrine and Endocrine-targeted Actions and Related Human Diseases(eds: Rosario Pivonello, Evanthia Diamanti-Kandarakis)
  
  
• Endocrine Disruption in the Male (2023), by Andreola Garolla, et al., published in the textbook Environment Impact on Reproductive Health : A Translational Approach (Roberto Marci, editor)
  
  
• Update in Adult Transgender Medicine: Annual Review of Medicine 2023 (2023), by Alyxandra Ramsay and Joshua D. Safer, published in Annual Review of Medicine (full-text)
  
  
• Biological Studies of Transgender Identity: A Critical Review (2023), by Rachel N. Levin, et al., published in the Journal of Gay & Lesbian Mental Health (abstract)
  
  
• Sexual Differentiation of the Human Hypothalamus: Relation to Gender Identity, Sexual Orientation and Neuropsychiatric Disorders (2022), by D.F. Swaab, Samantha Wolff, & A. M. Bao, published in the Handbook of Clinical Neurology
  
  
• Psychological and Biological Influences on Gender Roles (2022), by Laura Erickson-Schroth, published in the textbook Neuroscience in the 21st Century (Eds, Donald W. Pfaff, Nora D. Volkow, & John L. Rubenstein
  
  
• Chapter 10 – Endocrine Disruption and Male Reproductive Health (2022), by Phillippa D. Darbree, from the textbook Endocrine Disruption and Human Health, 2nd edition (2022)
  
  
• Review on the Transgender Literature: Where Are We Now and a Step beyond the Current Practice? (2022), by Dilini Abeyratne, et al., published in the journal Endocrines (full-text)
  
  
• 46,XY Differences of Sexual Development (2022), by Sorahia Domenice, et al., published in Endotext (full-text)
  
  
• The Biodevelopment of Sexual Orientation: Beyond the Known Horizon (2022), by Wojciech Ł. Dragan & Monika Folkierska-Żukowska, published in the journal Archives of Sexual Behavior (abstract)
  
  
• I was born this Way: New Research Confirms that a Mix of Prenatal Factors and Genetic Differences could Explain Human Sexual Orientation (2022), by Andrea Renaldi, published in the journal Science & Society (full-text)
  
  
• The Role of Testosterone in Male Sexual Function (2022), by Giovanni Corona & Mario, published in the journal Reviews in Endocrine & Metabolic Disorders (abstract)
  
  
• Testosterone in men with hypogonadism and transgender males: a systematic review comparing three different preparations (2022), by Milou Cecilia Madsen, et al., published in the journal Endocrine Connections
  
  
• The Male Reproductive System and Endocrine Disruptors (2022), by Mauro G. Schiesaro, et al., published in the journal Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders – Drug Targets
  
  
• Endocrine Disruptors of Sex Hormone Activities (2022), by L. Varticovski, et al., published in the journal Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology (abstract)
  
  
• Gender and Sexuality in Disorders/Differences of Sex Development (2022), by Baudewijntje P. C. Kreukels, published in the textbook Gender and Sexuality Development (chapter)
  
  
• Hormone Therapy in the Transgender Patient (2022), by Mary O. Stevenson & Vin Tangpricha, published in the text Endocrinology & Diabetes
  
  
• Endocrine Disruptors and Human Reproduction (2022), by Francesco Pallotti et al., in the text Environmental Alteration Leads to Human Disease: A Planetary Health Approach (Editors: Vittorio Ingegnoli, Francesco Lombardo, Giuseppe La Torre
  
  
• Prenatal and Postnatal Exposures to Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals and Timing of Pubertal Onset in Girls and Boys: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis (2022), by C S Uldbjerg, et al., published in the journal Human Reproduction Update (abstract)
  
  
• The Heritable Legacy of Diethylstilbestrol: A Bellwether for Endocrine Disruption in Humans (2021), by Suzanne Robotti, published in the journal Biology of Reproduction
  
  
• Impact of Endocrine Disruptors on Male Sexual Development (2021), by Alberto Ferlin, et al., published in the book Pediatric & Adolescent Andrology
  
  
• Erectile Dysfunction in Men on the Rise: Is There a Link with Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals? (2021), by Samuel M. Cripps, et al., published in the journal Sexual Development
  
  
• Endocrine Disruptors Acting on Estrogen and Androgen Pathways Cause Reproductive Disorders through Multiple Mechanisms: A Review (2021), by Saira Amir, et al., published in the International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health (full-text)
  
  
• Endocrine Disruptors and the Male Reproductive System (2021), by Jan-Bernd Stukenborg, et al., published in Best Practice Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism
  
  
• The Effect of Endocrine Disruptors on the Reproductive System – Current Knowledge (2021), by A. CZARNYWOJTEK, et al., published in European Review for Medical and Pharmacological Sciences
  
  
• Gender Identity Disorder Etiology and Medical Treatment: Between Scientific Evidence and Personal Experiences (2021), by Mario Vetri, et al., published in the Journal of Drugs Addiction & Therapeutics (full-text)
  
  
• Impact of Endocrine Disruptors on Male Sexual Development (2021), by Alberto Ferlin, et al., published in the text Pediatric and Adolescent Andrology (eds: Carlo Foresta and Daniele Gianfrilli)
  
  
• Review of Endocrine Disruptors on Male and Female Reproductive Systems (2021), by Hyekyoung Hannah You & Gwonhwa Song, published in the journal
  Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part C: Toxicology and Pharmacology
  
  
• Challenging the Binary: Gender/sex and the Bio-logics of Normalcy (2021), by L. Zachary Dubois & Heather Shattuck-Heidorn, published in The American Journal oh Human Biology (abstract)
  
  
• Putative Mental, Physical, and Social Mechanisms of Hormonal Influences on Postpartum Sexuality (2021), by Kirstin Clephane & Tierney K. Lorenz, published in Current Sexual Health Reports
  
  
• Considering Sex as a Biological Variable in Basic and Clinical Studies: An Endocrine Society Scientific Statement (2021), by Aditi Bhargava, et al., published in the journal Endocrine Reviews (full-text)
  

• A Short Review of Biological Research on the Development of Sexual Orientation (2020), by Anthony F. Bogaert & Malvina N. Skorska, published in the journal Hormones and Behavior (full-text)
  
  
• Brain Sex Differences Related to Gender Identity Development: Genes or Hormones? (2020), by Jiska Ristori, et al., published in the International Journal of Molecular Sciences (full-text)
  
  
• Hypogonadism and Cryptorchidism (2020), by Wiwat Rodprasert, et al., published in Frontiers in Endocrinology
  
  
• Gender Identity and Sexual Orientation Identity in Women and Men Prenatally Exposed to Diethylstilbestrol (2020), by Rebecca Troisi, et al., published in the Archives of Sexual Behavior
  
  
• Effects of Endocrine Disruptors on Fetal Testis Development, Male Puberty, and Transition Age (2020), by Francesco Cargnelutti, et al., published in the journal Endocrine
  
  
• Prenatal Sex Hormones and Behavioral Outcomes in Children (2020), by Drew B. Day, et al., published in the journal Psychoneuroendocrinology (full-text)
  
  
• Neuroendocrine Influences on Human Sexuality (2020), by Ashlyn Swift-Galant & S. Marc Breedlove, published in the Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Neuroscience (abstract only)
  
  
• Etiology of Gender Dysphoria (2020), by Randi Ettner, published in the text Gender Confirmation Surgery: Principles and Techniques for an Emerging Field (pp. 21-28)
  
  
• Toxic Chemicals and Their Effects on Reproduction (2020), by Celia Roberts, published in the textbook How Gender can Transform the Social Sciences (eds: Marian Sawer, Fiona Jenkins, Karen Downing)
  
  
• The epigenetic impacts of endocrine disruptors on female reproduction across generations (2019), by Saniya Rattan & Jodi A Flaws, published in the journal Biology of Reproduction
  
  
• Neurobiology of Gender Identity and Sexual Orientation (2019), by C.E. Roselli, published in the Journal of Neuroendocrinology (full-text)
  
  
• What has sex got to do with it? The Role of Hormones in the Transgender Brain (2019), by Hillary B. Nguyen, et al., published in the journal Neuropsychopharmacology (full-text)
  
  
  
• Etiology of Gender Identity (2019), by Sira Korpaisarn & Joshua D. Safer, published in the journal Endocrinology and Metabolism Clinics of North America (full-text)
  
  
• Evidence for Link between Mental Disorders and in utero Exposure to Synthetic Hormones: A Long and Crucial History (2018), by M O Soyer-Gobillard, et. al, published in the open text Mental Disorders (same authors)
  
  
• Transgender Associations and Possible Etiology: A Literature Review (2017), by Fatima Saleem & Syed W. Rizvi, published in the journal Cureus (full-text)
  
  
• The Epidemiologic Evidence Linking Prenatal and Postnatal Exposure to Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals with Male Reproductive Disorders: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis (2016), by Jens Peter Bonde, et. al, published in the journal Human Reproduction Update (full-text)
  
  
• Environmental endocrine disruptors: Effects on the human male reproductive system (2016), by M. F. Sweeney, et al., published in Reviews in Endocrine & Metabolic Disorders
  
  
• How Early Hormones Shape Gender Development (2016), by Sheri Berenbaum & Adriene M. Beltz, published in the journal Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences
  
  
  2001-2015
  
  
• Association Between Fetal DES-exposure and Psychiatric Disorders in Adolescence/adulthood: Evidence from a French Cohort of 1002 Prenatally Exposed Children (2015), published in the journal Gynecological Endocrinology (full-text)
  
  
• Measurement of Testosterone in Human Sexuality Research: Methodological Considerations (2014), by Sari M. Van Anders, et al., published in the Archives of Sexual Behavior (full-text)
  
  
• Sexual Differentiation of the Human Brain: Relation to Gender Identity, Sexual Orientation and Neuropsychiatric Disorders (2011), by Ai-Min Bao & Dick Swaab, published in the journal Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology (full-text)
  
  
• Minireview: Hormones and Human Sexual Orientation (2011), by Jacques Balthazart, published in the journal Endocrinology (full-text)
  
  
• Sexual Hormones and the Brain: An Essential Alliance for Sexual Identity and Sexual Orientation (2010), by A. Garcia-Falgueras & D.F. Swaab, published in the journal Pediatric Neurology (abstract only)
  
  
• Clinical Implications of the Organizational and Activational Effects of Hormones (2009), by Milton Diamond, et. al, published in the journal Hormones and Behavior
  
  
• Urogenital Abnormalities in Men Exposed to Diethylstilbestrol in utero: A Cohort Study (2009), by Julie R. Palmer, et. al, published in the journal Environmental Health (full-text)
  
  
• Estrogen Imprinting: When your Epigenetic Memories Come Back to Haunt You (2008), by Gail S. Prins, published in the journal Endocrinology (full-text)
  
  
• Long-Term Psychosexual Development in Genetic Males Affected by Disorders of Sex Development (46,XY DSD) Reared Male or Female (2008), by Amy B. Wisniewski, et al, published in the journal Current Pediatric Reviews (abstract only)
  
  
• The Retreat from Precaution: Regulating Diethylstilbestrol (DES), Endocrine Disruptors, and Environmental Health (2008), by Nancy Langston, published in Environmental Health
  
  
• Sexual Differentiation of the Brain and Behavior (2007), by Dick F. Swaab, published in the journal Best Practice & Research Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism (abstract only)
  
  
• Atypical Gender Development–A Review (2006), by the Gender Identity Research and Education Society (GIRES), published in the International Journal of Transgenderism (full-text)
  
  
• Male Reproductive Disorders in Humans and Prenatal Indicators of Estrogen Exposure: A Review of Published Epidemiological Studies (2006), by Lone Storgaard, et. al, published in the journal Reproductive Toxicology (full-text)
  
  
• Estrogen Effects on Fetal and Neonatal Testicular Development (2006), by Geraldine Delbes, et. al, published in the journal Reproduction (full-text)
  
  
• Adverse Effects of the Model Environmental Estrogen Diethylstilbestrol Are Transmitted to Subsequent Generations (2006), by Retha R. Newbold, et al., published in the journal Endocrinology
  
  
• Prenatal Exposure to Diethylstilbestrol (DES) in Males and Gender-Related Disorders: Results from a 5-Year Study (2005), by Scott Kerlin, published in ResearchGate
  
  
• Effects of Endocrine Disruptors on Developmental and Reproductive Functions (2005), by  L.Brevini, et al., published in Current Drug Targets – Immune, Endocrine & Metabolic Disorders
  
  
• The Neurodevelopment of Human Sexual Orientation (2005), by Qazi Rahman, published in the journal Neuscience & Biobehavioral Reviews (full-text)
  
  
• Prenatal Sex Hormone Effects on Child and Adult Sex-Typed Behavior: Methods and Findings (2005), by Celina CC Cohen-Bendahan, et. al, published in the journal Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews (full-text)
  
  
• Are EDCs Blurring Issues of Gender? (2005), by Ernie Hood, published in the journal Environmental Health Perspectives (fulltext)
  
  
• A Psycho-Endocrinological Overview of Transsexualism (2003), by Aude Michel, et. al, published in the European Journal of Endocrinology (abstract only)
  
  
• Hormones, Sexual Behavior and Gender Identity (2003), by Scott Kerlin, unpublished thesis produced at University of Victoria Dept. of Psychology (Dr. Aaron Devor, advising faculty)
  
  
• Psychosexual Characteristics of Men and Women Exposed Prenatally to Diethylstilbestrol (2003), by Linda Titus-Ernstoff, et. al, published in the journal Epidemiology (abstract only)
  
  
• Environmental Endocrine Disrupters and Disorders of Sexual Differentiation (2002), by Jorma Toppari, published in the journal Seminars in Reproductive Medicine (abstract only)
  
  
• The ‘Oestrogen Hypothesis’–Where do we stand now? (2003), by Richard M. Sharpe, published in the International Journal of Andrology (full-text)
  
  
• Environmental Xenoestrogens, Anti-androgens, and Disorders of Male Sexual Differentiation (2001), by Charles Sultan, et. al, published in the journal Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology (full-text)
  
  1973-2000
  
  
• Prenatal Estrogens and the Development of Homosexual Behavior (1995), by HFL Meyer-Bahlburg & AA Ehrhardt, published in the journal Developmental Psychology (full-text)
  
  
• Do Environmental Estrogens Contribute to the Decline in Male Reproductive Health? (1995), by T K Jensen, et. al, published in the journal Clinical Chemistry (abstract only)
  
  
• Gender-related Behavior in Women Exposed Prenatally to Diethylstilbestrol (1993), by R. R. Newbold, published in the journal Environmental Health
  
  
• Prenatal Exposure to Diethylstilbestrol (DES): Childhood Play Behavior and Adult Gender-role Behavior in Women (1992), by Jennifer D. Lish, et. al, published in the journal Archives of Sexual Behavior
  
  
• Hormonal Contributions to Sexually Dimorphic Behavioral Development in Humans (1991), by June Machover Reinisch, et. al, published in the journal Psychoneuroendocrinology (abstract only)
  
  
• Gender-related Behavior Development in Females Exposed to Diethylstilbestrol (DES) in Utero: An Attempted Replication (1991), by Jennifer D. Lish, et. al, published in the Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry (abstract only)
  
  
• The Development of Gender-related Behavior in Females Following Prenatal Exposure to Diethylstilbestrol (DES) (1989), by Anke A. Ehrhardt, et. al, published in the journal Hormones and Behavior (abstract only)
  
  
• Sexual Orientation after Prenatal Exposure to Exogenous Estrogen (1985), by Anke A. Ehrhardt, et. al, published in the journal Archives of Sexual Behavior (abstract only)
  
  
• Sexual Activity Level and Sexual Functioning in Women Prenatally Exposed to Diethylstilbestrol (1985), by H F L Meyer-Bahlburg, et. al, published in the journal Psychosomatic Medicine (abstract only)
  
  
• Prenatal Gonadal Steroidal Influences on Gender-related Behavior (1984), by JM Reinisch & SA Sanders, published in the journal Progress in Brain Research (abstract only)
  
  
• Psychoendocrine Research on Sexual Orientation: Current Status and Future Options (1984), by Heino F.L. Meyer-Bahlburg, published in the journal Progress in Brain Research (abstract)
  
  
• Estrogen Exposure During Gestation and Risk of Testicular Cancer (1983), by Robert H. Depue, et. al, published in the JNCI: Journal of the National Cancer Institute (abstract only)
  
  
• Effects of Prenatal Sex Hormones on Gender-related Behavior (1981), by Anke Ehrhardt & H. Meyer-Bahlburg, published in the journal Science (abstract only)
  
  
• Prenatal ‘Female Hormone’ Administration and Pschosexual Development in Human Males (1980), by Patricia Kester, et al, published in the journal Psychoneuroendocrinology (abstract only)
  
  
• The Effects of Exogenous Female Hormones on the Fetus (1979), by S Shapiro & D. Slone, published in the journal Epidemiologic Reviews (abstract only)
  
  
• Prenatal Exposure to Female Hormones: Effect on Psychosexual Development in Boys (1973), by Irvin D. Yalom, et. al, published in the Archives of General Psychiatry (abstract only)